Clinical Reference Centre

Condition2 min read

Achalasia: Diagnosis and Treatment Selection

Achalasia is impaired lower oesophageal sphincter relaxation and absent or abnormal peristalsis.

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Laboratory Test3 min read

Activated Partial Thromboplastin Time: Interpretation and Investigation

A clinical guide to prolonged APTT, heparin, factor deficiency, lupus anticoagulant and mixing studies.

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Condition2 min read

Acute Asthma: Severity Assessment and Emergency Escalation

Acute asthma severity depends on symptoms, respiratory rate, pulse, oxygen saturation, peak flow, speech, exhaustion and response to initial therapy.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Acute Chest Syndrome in Sickle Cell Disease

Recognise new pulmonary infiltrate with respiratory symptoms, give oxygen when hypoxaemic, antibiotics, analgesia and consider transfusion escalation.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Acute Cholangitis: Infection Management

Treat sepsis and arrange urgent biliary drainage; antibiotics alone are insufficient when obstruction persists.

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Condition2 min read

Acute Cholangitis: Recognition, Antibiotics and Biliary Drainage

Acute cholangitis is infection of an obstructed biliary system and can progress rapidly to sepsis.

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Condition2 min read

Acute Cholecystitis: Diagnosis and Early Surgery

Acute cholecystitis causes persistent right-upper-quadrant pain, inflammation and gallbladder wall changes.

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Condition2 min read

Acute Coronary Syndrome: Recognition and Immediate Assessment

Acute coronary syndrome includes ST-elevation myocardial infarction, non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction and unstable angina. Early assessment combines symptoms, serial ECGs, high-sensitivity troponin and haemodynamic stability.

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Condition2 min read

Acute Exacerbation of Fibrotic Lung Disease

Acute exacerbation is rapid respiratory deterioration with new bilateral alveolar abnormality not fully explained by fluid overload or another cause.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Acute Gastroenteritis in Children

Acute Gastroenteritis in Children requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current paediatrics guidance. Interpret symptoms,…

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Condition2 min read

Acute Heart Failure: Congestion, Oxygenation and Early Management

Acute heart failure presents with rapid onset or worsening congestion, hypoperfusion or both. Identify precipitating causes such as ACS, arrhythmia, infection, uncontrolled hypertension or medication interruption.

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Condition3 min read

Acute Kidney Injury: Recognition, Staging and Immediate Management

An updated reference to AKI recognition, staging, causes, medicines, obstruction, complications and follow-up.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Acute Leukaemia: Recognition and Referral

Recognise cytopenias, blasts, bleeding, infection, organ infiltration and tumour lysis risk, and arrange urgent haematology assessment.

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Condition2 min read

Acute Liver Failure: Recognition and Initial Priorities

Acute liver failure is severe acute liver injury with coagulopathy and encephalopathy in a patient without established cirrhosis. It can deteriorate rapidly.

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Condition2 min read

Acute Liver Failure: Recognition, Aetiology and Transplant Referral

Acute liver failure is acute liver injury with coagulopathy and encephalopathy in a patient without established cirrhosis.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Acute Lymphoblastic Leukaemia in Adults

Use immunophenotypic and molecular classification, CNS prophylaxis, measurable residual disease and age-appropriate protocols to guide treatment.

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Condition2 min read

Acute Mesenteric Ischaemia: Early Recognition and Revascularisation

Acute mesenteric ischaemia causes intestinal hypoperfusion from embolism, thrombosis, venous occlusion or non-occlusive disease.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Acute Myeloid Leukaemia

Integrate morphology, immunophenotype, cytogenetics and molecular findings to guide induction, targeted therapy, transplant and supportive care.

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Condition2 min read

Acute Pancreatitis: Diagnosis, Severity and Early Management

Acute pancreatitis is diagnosed using compatible pain, elevated pancreatic enzymes and/or imaging. Gallstones and alcohol are common causes.

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Condition2 min read

Acute Pericarditis: Diagnosis, Risk Features and Treatment

Acute pericarditis commonly presents with pleuritic positional pain, pericardial rub, ECG change or effusion. Diagnosis requires clinical criteria and exclusion of important alternatives.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Acute Pyelonephritis

Recognise systemic upper-tract infection, assess obstruction and sepsis risk, and arrange imaging or admission for complicated disease.

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Condition2 min read

Acute Respiratory Acidosis: Ventilatory Failure and Escalation

Acute respiratory acidosis reflects carbon dioxide retention from inadequate alveolar ventilation. Falling pH, rising carbon dioxide and fatigue signal worsening ventilatory failure.

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Condition2 min read

Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome: Recognition and Severity

ARDS is acute inflammatory lung injury with bilateral pulmonary opacities and hypoxaemia not fully explained by cardiac failure or fluid overload. Severity is commonly classified using oxygenation impairment…

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Condition2 min read

Acute Respiratory Failure: Recognition and Initial Management

Acute respiratory failure is failure of oxygenation, ventilation or both. Initial management should use an ABCDE approach while identifying reversible causes and the need for advanced respiratory support.

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Condition2 min read

Acute Severe Asthma: Assessment and Escalation

Acute asthma severity is determined by symptoms, objective airflow limitation, oxygenation, vital signs and response to initial treatment. A normal or rising carbon dioxide in a tiring patient…

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Condition2 min read

Acute Severe Ulcerative Colitis: Inpatient Management

Acute severe ulcerative colitis is a medical emergency requiring admission, intravenous corticosteroids, thromboprophylaxis, infection exclusion and close multidisciplinary review.

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Condition2 min read

Acute Variceal Bleeding: Resuscitation and Haemostasis

Variceal bleeding is a life-threatening complication of portal hypertension.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Adenomyosis

Adenomyosis requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current obstetrics & gynaecology guidance. Interpret symptoms, examination…

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Condition2 min read

Adrenal Crisis: Emergency Recognition and Treatment

Adrenal crisis is a life-threatening endocrine emergency causing hypotension, electrolyte disturbance, hypoglycaemia and shock.

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Condition2 min read

Adrenal Insufficiency: Diagnosis and Long-Term Management

Adrenal insufficiency may be primary, secondary or tertiary and can present with fatigue, weight loss, hypotension, hyponatraemia or hypoglycaemia.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Adult-Onset Still’s Disease

Recognise quotidian fever, rash, arthritis and hyperinflammation after excluding infection and malignancy.

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Condition2 min read

Alcohol-Associated Hepatitis: Severity and Treatment

Alcohol-associated hepatitis presents with jaundice and acute liver dysfunction in the context of recent heavy alcohol use.

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Condition2 min read

Alcohol-Related Liver Disease: Assessment and Management

Alcohol-related liver disease spans steatosis, hepatitis, fibrosis and cirrhosis.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Anaemia: Structured Diagnostic Assessment

Classify anaemia by haemoglobin, MCV, reticulocyte response and clinical context, then investigate blood loss, deficiency, inflammation, haemolysis and marrow disease.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

ANCA-Associated Vasculitis

Recognise pulmonary, renal, ENT, skin and neurological involvement and use organ-threatening induction plus maintenance treatment.

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Laboratory Test10 min read

Anion Gap: Calculation, Interpretation and Clinical Use

A detailed clinical reference to anion gap calculation, albumin correction, differential diagnosis, mixed acid-base disorders and practical pitfalls.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Ankylosing Spondylitis

Monitor spinal symptoms, mobility, function, uveitis, psoriasis and bowel disease and use biologic therapy for persistently active disease.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Antimicrobial Stewardship: Core Clinical Principles

Use antibiotics only when bacterial infection is plausible, obtain appropriate cultures, select the narrowest effective agent and review route, dose and duration.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Antiphospholipid Syndrome

Confirm persistent antiphospholipid antibodies with qualifying thrombosis or obstetric morbidity and individualise antithrombotic treatment.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Antiphospholipid Syndrome in Rheumatology

Differentiate thrombotic and obstetric APS from isolated antibody positivity and avoid applying research classification criteria as diagnostic rules alone.

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Condition2 min read

Aortic Regurgitation: Severity, Ventricular Response and Follow-Up

Aortic regurgitation assessment combines valve anatomy, regurgitant severity, left ventricular size and function, aortic dimensions and symptoms.

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Condition2 min read

Aortic Stenosis: Severity, Symptoms and Referral

Aortic stenosis severity is assessed using valve velocity, mean gradient, valve area, flow state and left ventricular response. Symptoms or ventricular dysfunction materially change prognosis.

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Clinical Measurement3 min read

Arterial Blood Gas Interpretation: A Structured Clinical Approach

A stepwise guide to pH, carbon dioxide, bicarbonate, oxygenation, compensation, mixed disorders and sampling pitfalls.

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Condition2 min read

Ascites in Cirrhosis: Diagnosis and Management

New or worsening ascites requires diagnostic paracentesis to assess infection and cause.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Aspiration Pneumonia and Pneumonitis

Differentiate chemical pneumonitis from bacterial aspiration infection and address swallowing, airway protection and source-control factors.

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Condition2 min read

Asthma: Diagnosis, Objective Testing and Monitoring

Asthma diagnosis should be based on a compatible history plus objective evidence of variable expiratory airflow limitation or airway inflammation. Symptoms alone are not sufficiently specific.

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Clinical Management2 min read

Asthma: Long-Term Management and Risk Reduction

Long-term asthma care aims to control symptoms, prevent attacks, preserve lung function and minimise treatment burden. Inhaled corticosteroid-containing therapy is central.

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Condition2 min read

Atrial Fibrillation: Diagnosis and Initial Clinical Assessment

Atrial fibrillation requires ECG confirmation. Initial assessment should define symptom burden, ventricular rate, haemodynamic stability, duration, reversible triggers and stroke risk.

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