Clinical Reference Centre

Condition2 min read

Cholangiocarcinoma: Recognition and Diagnostic Pathway

Cholangiocarcinoma may present with painless jaundice, cholestatic tests, weight loss or biliary sepsis.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Chronic Constipation: Assessment and Management

Chronic constipation may reflect slow transit, pelvic-floor dysfunction, medicines, metabolic disease or secondary pathology.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Chronic Coronary Syndrome: Diagnosis and Long-Term Management

Chronic coronary syndrome includes stable angina and other chronic presentations of coronary atherosclerosis. Assessment should estimate clinical likelihood, identify high-risk features and select anatomical or functional testing appropriately.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Chronic Cough: Structured Diagnostic Assessment

Chronic cough requires assessment for smoking, ACE inhibitors, asthma or eosinophilic airway disease, reflux, upper-airway symptoms and structural lung disease.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Chronic Diarrhoea: Structured Diagnostic Assessment

Chronic diarrhoea has inflammatory, malabsorptive, endocrine, infectious, medication-related and functional causes.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Chronic Hepatitis B: Assessment and Treatment

Chronic hepatitis B management depends on viral replication, ALT, fibrosis, age, family history and immunosuppression.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Chronic Hepatitis C: Diagnosis and Direct-Acting Antiviral Therapy

Hepatitis C is diagnosed with antibody testing followed by RNA confirmation.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

Chronic Lymphocytic Leukaemia

Confirm clonal B-cell lymphocytosis, stage disease, assess TP53/IGHV and treat only when active-disease criteria are met.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Chronic Pancreatitis: Diagnosis, Pain and Exocrine Failure

Chronic pancreatitis causes irreversible structural damage, pain, exocrine insufficiency and diabetes.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

Chronic Widespread Pain

Assess inflammatory, neurological, endocrine and sleep-related mimics while avoiding repeated low-yield investigation.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Cirrhosis: Diagnosis, Staging and Long-Term Care

Cirrhosis is advanced chronic liver disease with fibrosis, portal hypertension and risk of decompensation.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Clostridioides difficile Infection: Severity and Recurrence

C. difficile infection causes antibiotic-associated diarrhoea and colitis ranging from mild disease to fulminant toxic megacolon.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

Coeliac Disease in Children

Coeliac Disease in Children requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current paediatrics guidance. Interpret symptoms,…

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Coeliac Disease: Diagnosis, Biopsy and Long-Term Care

Coeliac disease is immune-mediated enteropathy triggered by gluten in genetically susceptible people. Diagnosis requires appropriate serology and, in many adults, histological confirmation while consuming gluten.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Management2 min read

Colorectal Cancer Surveillance in Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Longstanding colonic IBD increases colorectal cancer risk according to duration, extent, inflammation and additional risk factors.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

Colorectal Cancer: Adjuvant Treatment

Use pathological stage, mismatch-repair status, recurrence risk and fitness to determine benefit and duration of adjuvant therapy.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Colorectal Cancer: Recognition, FIT and Referral

Colorectal cancer may present with rectal bleeding, altered bowel habit, iron-deficiency anaemia, weight loss or obstruction.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Colorectal Cancer: Staging and Multidisciplinary Treatment

Colorectal cancer staging uses cross-sectional imaging and, for rectal cancer, dedicated pelvic MRI.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Common Bile Duct Stones: Risk Assessment and Management

Common bile duct stones may cause jaundice, cholangitis or pancreatitis. Liver tests and duct imaging guide probability.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

Community-Acquired Pneumonia: Antimicrobial Strategy

Assess severity, likely pathogen, aspiration risk and resistance factors, then use guideline-concordant antibiotics and early review.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Community-Acquired Pneumonia: Diagnosis, Severity and Treatment

Community-acquired pneumonia requires clinical assessment, oxygenation, severity stratification and appropriate antimicrobial treatment. Imaging supports diagnosis when indicated.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

Congenital Heart Disease Recognition

Congenital Heart Disease Recognition requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current paediatrics guidance. Interpret symptoms,…

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Measurement2 min read

Continuous Glucose Monitoring: Metrics and Clinical Interpretation

Continuous glucose monitoring provides interstitial glucose trends, alerts and summary metrics that complement HbA1c.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

COPD Exacerbation: Assessment, Treatment and Discharge Planning

A COPD exacerbation is acute worsening of respiratory symptoms beyond usual variation. Assess severity, gas exchange, infection, alternative diagnoses and need for ventilatory support.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

COPD: Diagnosis and Spirometric Confirmation

COPD diagnosis requires compatible symptoms and exposure history plus persistent airflow obstruction on post-bronchodilator spirometry.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Management2 min read

COPD: Stable Management, Inhaled Therapy and Follow-Up

Stable COPD management includes smoking cessation, vaccination, pulmonary rehabilitation, inhaled therapy, exacerbation prevention and treatment of comorbidity.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Laboratory Test3 min read

Corrected Calcium and Ionised Calcium: Interpretation and Limitations

A guide to total calcium, albumin adjustment, ionised calcium, pH effects and investigation of abnormal calcium.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

COVID-19 in High-Risk Patients

Assess severity, oxygen need and eligibility for antiviral or immunomodulatory treatment while considering interactions and timing.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Crohn’s Disease: Diagnosis, Phenotype and Management

Crohn's disease can affect any part of the gastrointestinal tract and may cause stricturing, penetrating or perianal complications.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

Croup

Croup requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current paediatrics guidance. Interpret symptoms, examination findings, investigations,…

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Laboratory Test3 min read

D-Dimer: Interpretation in Venous Thromboembolism Pathways

A clinical reference to D-dimer, pre-test probability, age adjustment, false positives and VTE pathways.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Measurement2 min read

Delta Ratio: Identifying Mixed Metabolic Acidosis

The delta ratio compares the rise in anion gap with the fall in bicarbonate to screen for additional metabolic acid-base processes.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

Dengue: Recognition and Fluid Management

Recognise warning signs, monitor haematocrit and platelets, avoid NSAIDs and use cautious fluid therapy during the critical phase.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

Dermatomyositis

Recognise characteristic skin disease and muscle or amyopathic involvement, assess cancer risk and treat systemic complications.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

Developmental Delay

Developmental Delay requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current paediatrics guidance. Interpret symptoms, examination findings,…

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Management2 min read

Diabetes and Cardiovascular Risk Management

Diabetes substantially increases atherosclerotic and heart-failure risk.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Management2 min read

Diabetes in Older Adults: Frailty, Hypoglycaemia and Individualised Targets

Diabetes care in older adults should reflect frailty, cognition, life expectancy, comorbidity and treatment burden.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Diabetes in Pregnancy: Preconception, Antenatal and Postnatal Care

Pre-existing and gestational diabetes increase maternal and fetal risk.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Management2 min read

Diabetes Sick-Day Rules: Insulin, Ketones and Medication Safety

Intercurrent illness can cause hyperglycaemia, ketosis, dehydration and acute kidney injury.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Diabetes-Related Kidney Disease: Screening and Risk Reduction

Diabetes-related kidney disease is identified using eGFR and urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Diabetic Foot Infection: Severity, Imaging and Urgent Management

Diabetic foot infection can progress rapidly and coexist with ischaemia or osteomyelitis.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Diabetic Foot Risk Assessment and Prevention

Diabetic foot disease results from neuropathy, peripheral arterial disease, deformity, trauma and infection.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

Diabetic Ketoacidosis in Children

Diabetic Ketoacidosis in Children requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current paediatrics guidance. Interpret symptoms,…

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Diabetic Ketoacidosis: Diagnosis, Treatment and Monitoring

Diabetic ketoacidosis is insulin deficiency causing ketonaemia, metabolic acidosis and fluid and electrolyte loss.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Diabetic Neuropathy: Assessment and Symptom Management

Diabetic neuropathy includes distal symmetrical polyneuropathy, autonomic neuropathy and focal syndromes.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Diabetic Retinopathy: Screening, Referral and Risk Reduction

Diabetic retinopathy may remain asymptomatic until advanced disease.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Measurement2 min read

Diffusing Capacity (DLCO): Interpretation and Clinical Use

DLCO estimates gas transfer across the alveolar-capillary membrane and is influenced by membrane disease, pulmonary vascular blood volume and haemoglobin.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Dilated Cardiomyopathy: Aetiology, Genetics and Management

Dilated cardiomyopathy is ventricular dilation and systolic dysfunction not explained solely by loading conditions or coronary disease. Causes include genetic disease, myocarditis, toxins, tachycardia and systemic disorders.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later