Clinical Reference Centre

Clinical Management2 min read

Atrial Fibrillation: Rate-Control Strategy

Rate control can improve symptoms and prevent tachycardia-mediated cardiomyopathy. Choice of agent depends on ventricular function, blood pressure, activity level and comorbidity.

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Clinical Management2 min read

Atrial Fibrillation: Rhythm-Control Strategy and Cardioversion

Rhythm control includes cardioversion, antiarrhythmic medication and catheter ablation. It may improve symptoms and outcomes in selected patients, particularly when instituted early.

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Clinical Management2 min read

Atrial Fibrillation: Stroke Prevention and Anticoagulation

Stroke prevention is central to atrial fibrillation care. Use a validated stroke-risk assessment and identify modifiable bleeding risks without using bleeding scores to deny appropriate anticoagulation.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Children

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Children requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current paediatrics guidance.…

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Autism Recognition in Children

Autism Recognition in Children requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current paediatrics guidance. Interpret symptoms,…

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Autoimmune Haemolytic Anaemia

Classify warm, cold and drug-related immune haemolysis using direct antiglobulin testing and treat severity, cause and thrombotic risk.

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Condition2 min read

Autoimmune Hepatitis: Diagnosis and Immunosuppressive Management

Autoimmune hepatitis is immune-mediated liver inflammation diagnosed using biochemistry, immunology, histology and exclusion of alternatives.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Axial Spondyloarthritis

Recognise inflammatory back pain and extra-articular disease, use imaging appropriately and combine exercise with targeted pharmacological treatment.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Bacterial Meningitis

Give immediate empirical antibiotics and dexamethasone when indicated, obtain blood cultures and perform lumbar puncture only when safe.

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Condition2 min read

Barrett’s Oesophagus: Diagnosis and Surveillance

Barrett's oesophagus is columnar metaplasia of the distal oesophagus associated with adenocarcinoma risk.

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Laboratory Test2 min read

Base Excess: Interpretation in Acid-Base Disorders

Base excess estimates the metabolic component of an acid-base disturbance under standardised conditions. A negative value suggests a metabolic acidifying effect; a positive value suggests a metabolic alkalinising…

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Behçet Syndrome

Use organ-based treatment for mucocutaneous, ocular, vascular, neurological and gastrointestinal disease.

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Condition2 min read

Bile Acid Diarrhoea: Diagnosis and Treatment

Bile acid diarrhoea results from excess bile acids reaching the colon and may be primary or secondary to ileal disease or resection.

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Laboratory Test3 min read

Bilirubin: Conjugated and Unconjugated Hyperbilirubinaemia

A clinical guide to bilirubin metabolism, haemolysis, Gilbert syndrome, cholestasis and urgent jaundice assessment.

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Clinical Management2 min read

Biologic and Advanced Therapy in Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Advanced IBD therapy includes biologic agents and small molecules with different efficacy, safety and monitoring profiles.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Biologic and Targeted DMARD Safety

Screen for infection and vaccination needs, review cardiovascular, thrombotic and malignancy risk and monitor class-specific adverse effects.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Blood Culture Collection and Interpretation

Collect adequate sets before antibiotics when safe, avoid contamination and distinguish true bacteraemia from skin-flora contamination using organism and context.

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Laboratory Test3 min read

Blood Lactate: Interpretation, Causes and Serial Monitoring

A clinical reference to lactate production, impaired clearance, sepsis, medicines, sampling and serial interpretation.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Blood Transfusion: Indications and Thresholds

Use restrictive, patient-centred red-cell transfusion where appropriate and base platelet or plasma support on bleeding risk and clinical indication.

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Laboratory Test3 min read

BNP and NT-proBNP: Interpretation in Suspected Heart Failure

A guide to natriuretic peptides, heart failure referral thresholds, confounders and clinical limitations.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Bone and Joint Infection

Use blood cultures, imaging and tissue sampling to distinguish septic arthritis, osteomyelitis and prosthetic-joint infection.

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Condition2 min read

Bowel Obstruction: Recognition and Initial Management

Bowel obstruction causes pain, vomiting, distension and failure to pass stool or flatus. Causes include adhesions, hernia, tumour and volvulus.

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Condition2 min read

Bradycardia: Recognition, Reversible Causes and Pacing

Bradycardia becomes an emergency when associated with shock, syncope, myocardial ischaemia or severe heart failure. Assess rhythm, symptoms and reversible causes.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Brain Abscess

Use contrast imaging, blood cultures and neurosurgical sampling when possible, with prolonged targeted antimicrobial and source management.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Breast Cancer: Diagnosis and Staging

Use triple assessment and receptor testing, stage according to clinical risk and coordinate surgery, radiotherapy and systemic therapy.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Breech Presentation

Breech Presentation requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current obstetrics & gynaecology guidance. Interpret symptoms,…

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Condition2 min read

Bronchiectasis Exacerbation: Sputum, Antibiotics and Escalation

Bronchiectasis exacerbations involve worsening cough, sputum, breathlessness or systemic symptoms. Obtain sputum before antibiotics when possible and use prior microbiology.

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Condition2 min read

Bronchiectasis: Diagnosis, Aetiology and Baseline Assessment

Bronchiectasis is permanent bronchial dilatation associated with chronic infection, inflammation and impaired clearance. Diagnosis requires CT confirmation in the right clinical context.

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Clinical Management2 min read

Bronchiectasis: Long-Term Management and Exacerbation Prevention

Long-term management aims to reduce exacerbations, preserve lung function and improve symptoms. Airway clearance, microbiology-directed treatment and management of underlying cause are central.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Bronchiolitis

Bronchiolitis requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current paediatrics guidance. Interpret symptoms, examination findings, investigations,…

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Laboratory Test3 min read

C-Reactive Protein: Interpretation, Kinetics and Clinical Use

A practical reference to CRP kinetics, infection, inflammation, serial trends and limitations.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Calcium Pyrophosphate Deposition Disease

Recognise acute CPP crystal arthritis and chronic CPPD phenotypes and assess metabolic associations in younger or atypical disease.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Cancer Cachexia

Identify weight and muscle loss early and integrate nutrition, symptom control, exercise and anticancer treatment.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Cancer Multidisciplinary Team Decision-Making

Integrate pathology, imaging, molecular findings, fitness, patient preference and supportive needs in documented multidisciplinary decisions.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Cancer Pain Management

Use a structured assessment and multimodal analgesia, review neuropathic and incident pain and address constipation, sedation and psychosocial distress.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Cancer Recognition and Urgent Referral

Use symptom-specific referral pathways, appropriate primary-care tests and safety-netting; persistent clinical concern can justify referral despite a negative screening test.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Cancer-Associated Nausea and Vomiting

Match antiemetic prophylaxis to emetogenic risk and patient factors and provide rescue treatment and hydration advice.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Cancer-Associated Thrombosis

Balance recurrent thrombosis, tumour site, bleeding risk, interactions and patient preference when selecting and reviewing anticoagulation.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Cancer-Related Fatigue

Assess anaemia, sleep, mood, pain, endocrine disease and treatment effects and use exercise, education and targeted management.

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Condition2 min read

Carbon Monoxide Poisoning: Recognition and Management

Carbon monoxide poisoning causes tissue hypoxia and cellular toxicity. Symptoms are non-specific and pulse oximetry may appear normal.

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Condition2 min read

Cardiac Tamponade: Recognition and Emergency Management

Cardiac tamponade is haemodynamic compromise from pericardial pressure restricting cardiac filling. Clinical severity depends on rate of accumulation as well as volume.

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Laboratory Test8 min read

Cardiac Troponin: Clinical Interpretation and Diagnostic Pathways

A comprehensive reference to high-sensitivity cardiac troponin, myocardial injury, infarction, serial change, non-ischaemic causes and clinical pitfalls.

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Condition2 min read

Cardiogenic Shock: Recognition and Initial Management

Cardiogenic shock is critical reduction in cardiac output causing tissue hypoperfusion. Causes include acute myocardial infarction, mechanical complications, myocarditis, severe valve disease and decompensated cardiomyopathy.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infection

Treat symptomatic infection rather than bacteriuria alone, replace or remove the catheter when appropriate and obtain a properly collected specimen.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Chemotherapy-Induced Neutropenia

Assess fever as an emergency, consider prophylactic growth factor according to regimen risk and review dose intensity after complications.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Child Safeguarding Medical Assessment

Child Safeguarding Medical Assessment requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current paediatrics guidance. Interpret symptoms,…

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Childhood Asthma

Childhood Asthma requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current paediatrics guidance. Interpret symptoms, examination findings,…

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Childhood Epilepsy

Childhood Epilepsy requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current paediatrics guidance. Interpret symptoms, examination findings,…

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