Clinical Reference Centre

Condition2 min read

Cholangiocarcinoma: Recognition and Diagnostic Pathway

Cholangiocarcinoma may present with painless jaundice, cholestatic tests, weight loss or biliary sepsis.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Chronic Coronary Syndrome: Diagnosis and Long-Term Management

Chronic coronary syndrome includes stable angina and other chronic presentations of coronary atherosclerosis. Assessment should estimate clinical likelihood, identify high-risk features and select anatomical or functional testing appropriately.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Chronic Cough: Structured Diagnostic Assessment

Chronic cough requires assessment for smoking, ACE inhibitors, asthma or eosinophilic airway disease, reflux, upper-airway symptoms and structural lung disease.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Chronic Hepatitis B: Assessment and Treatment

Chronic hepatitis B management depends on viral replication, ALT, fibrosis, age, family history and immunosuppression.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Chronic Pancreatitis: Diagnosis, Pain and Exocrine Failure

Chronic pancreatitis causes irreversible structural damage, pain, exocrine insufficiency and diabetes.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Clostridioides difficile Infection: Severity and Recurrence

C. difficile infection causes antibiotic-associated diarrhoea and colitis ranging from mild disease to fulminant toxic megacolon.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Colorectal Cancer: Recognition, FIT and Referral

Colorectal cancer may present with rectal bleeding, altered bowel habit, iron-deficiency anaemia, weight loss or obstruction.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Community-Acquired Pneumonia: Diagnosis, Severity and Treatment

Community-acquired pneumonia requires clinical assessment, oxygenation, severity stratification and appropriate antimicrobial treatment. Imaging supports diagnosis when indicated.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Measurement2 min read

Continuous Glucose Monitoring: Metrics and Clinical Interpretation

Continuous glucose monitoring provides interstitial glucose trends, alerts and summary metrics that complement HbA1c.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

COPD Exacerbation: Assessment, Treatment and Discharge Planning

A COPD exacerbation is acute worsening of respiratory symptoms beyond usual variation. Assess severity, gas exchange, infection, alternative diagnoses and need for ventilatory support.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

COPD: Diagnosis and Spirometric Confirmation

COPD diagnosis requires compatible symptoms and exposure history plus persistent airflow obstruction on post-bronchodilator spirometry.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Management2 min read

COPD: Stable Management, Inhaled Therapy and Follow-Up

Stable COPD management includes smoking cessation, vaccination, pulmonary rehabilitation, inhaled therapy, exacerbation prevention and treatment of comorbidity.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Laboratory Test3 min read

Corrected Calcium and Ionised Calcium: Interpretation and Limitations

A guide to total calcium, albumin adjustment, ionised calcium, pH effects and investigation of abnormal calcium.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Laboratory Test3 min read

D-Dimer: Interpretation in Venous Thromboembolism Pathways

A clinical reference to D-dimer, pre-test probability, age adjustment, false positives and VTE pathways.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Measurement2 min read

Delta Ratio: Identifying Mixed Metabolic Acidosis

The delta ratio compares the rise in anion gap with the fall in bicarbonate to screen for additional metabolic acid-base processes.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Management2 min read

Diabetes and Cardiovascular Risk Management

Diabetes substantially increases atherosclerotic and heart-failure risk.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Management2 min read

Diabetes in Older Adults: Frailty, Hypoglycaemia and Individualised Targets

Diabetes care in older adults should reflect frailty, cognition, life expectancy, comorbidity and treatment burden.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Diabetes in Pregnancy: Preconception, Antenatal and Postnatal Care

Pre-existing and gestational diabetes increase maternal and fetal risk.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Management2 min read

Diabetes Sick-Day Rules: Insulin, Ketones and Medication Safety

Intercurrent illness can cause hyperglycaemia, ketosis, dehydration and acute kidney injury.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Diabetes-Related Kidney Disease: Screening and Risk Reduction

Diabetes-related kidney disease is identified using eGFR and urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Diabetic Foot Infection: Severity, Imaging and Urgent Management

Diabetic foot infection can progress rapidly and coexist with ischaemia or osteomyelitis.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Diabetic Foot Risk Assessment and Prevention

Diabetic foot disease results from neuropathy, peripheral arterial disease, deformity, trauma and infection.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Diabetic Ketoacidosis: Diagnosis, Treatment and Monitoring

Diabetic ketoacidosis is insulin deficiency causing ketonaemia, metabolic acidosis and fluid and electrolyte loss.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Diabetic Neuropathy: Assessment and Symptom Management

Diabetic neuropathy includes distal symmetrical polyneuropathy, autonomic neuropathy and focal syndromes.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Diabetic Retinopathy: Screening, Referral and Risk Reduction

Diabetic retinopathy may remain asymptomatic until advanced disease.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Measurement2 min read

Diffusing Capacity (DLCO): Interpretation and Clinical Use

DLCO estimates gas transfer across the alveolar-capillary membrane and is influenced by membrane disease, pulmonary vascular blood volume and haemoglobin.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Dilated Cardiomyopathy: Aetiology, Genetics and Management

Dilated cardiomyopathy is ventricular dilation and systolic dysfunction not explained solely by loading conditions or coronary disease. Causes include genetic disease, myocarditis, toxins, tachycardia and systemic disorders.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Distributive Shock: Vasodilation, Sepsis and Anaphylaxis

Distributive shock features pathological vasodilation and maldistribution of blood flow. Sepsis is common, but anaphylaxis, neurogenic shock and endocrine crises must be considered.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Diverticular Disease and Acute Diverticulitis

Diverticular disease may cause chronic symptoms, inflammation, abscess, perforation, fistula or bleeding.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Management2 min read

Dual Antiplatelet Therapy: Duration, Bleeding Risk and Review

Dual antiplatelet therapy commonly combines aspirin with a P2Y12 inhibitor after ACS or PCI. Duration depends on presentation, stent strategy, ischaemic risk, bleeding risk and need for oral…

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Dyspepsia: Assessment, H. pylori Testing and Referral

Dyspepsia includes upper abdominal pain, early satiety, postprandial fullness and related symptoms. Initial assessment should identify alarm features, medicine causes and the need for endoscopy.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Laboratory Test9 min read

Estimated Glomerular Filtration Rate (eGFR): Interpretation and Clinical Use

A comprehensive guide to eGFR equations, CKD classification, albuminuria, limitations, drug dosing and longitudinal interpretation.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Management2 min read

Fitness Assessment Before Curative-Intent Lung Cancer Treatment

Fitness assessment estimates peri-treatment risk and projected pulmonary reserve before surgery, radiotherapy or multimodal treatment.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

Folate Deficiency

Confirm folate deficiency, review nutrition, alcohol, pregnancy, medicines and malabsorption, and exclude concomitant vitamin B12 deficiency.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Gallstone Disease: Diagnosis and Management

Gallstones may cause biliary colic, cholecystitis, pancreatitis or common bile duct obstruction.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Gastro-Oesophageal Reflux Disease: Diagnosis and Long-Term Management

GORD is reflux of gastric contents causing troublesome symptoms or complications. Typical symptoms can often be managed clinically, while atypical or alarm features require investigation.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Gestational Diabetes: Diagnosis and Management

Gestational diabetes is hyperglycaemia first recognised during pregnancy that does not meet criteria for overt diabetes.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Glucocorticoid-Induced Adrenal Insufficiency

Exogenous glucocorticoids can suppress the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Haemoptysis: Severity Assessment and Investigation

Haemoptysis ranges from blood-streaked sputum to life-threatening airway bleeding. Severity is determined by physiological effect and airway risk rather than volume alone.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Heart Failure With Preserved Ejection Fraction: Diagnosis and Management

HFpEF diagnosis requires evidence of elevated filling pressures or structural heart disease in the setting of compatible symptoms and preserved ejection fraction. Obesity, atrial fibrillation, hypertension and kidney…

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Heart Failure With Reduced Ejection Fraction: Guideline-Directed Therapy

HFrEF management combines disease-modifying drug classes, diuretics for congestion, device assessment, rehabilitation and treatment of aetiology and comorbidity.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Heart Failure: Diagnostic Assessment and Phenotyping

Heart failure is a clinical syndrome caused by structural or functional cardiac abnormality. Diagnosis combines symptoms, signs, natriuretic peptides, ECG and cardiac imaging.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Heart Valve Disease: Murmur Assessment and Referral

Heart valve disease should be suspected from symptoms, murmur characteristics, ECG or imaging abnormalities. Echocardiography defines anatomy, severity and ventricular response.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Helicobacter pylori: Testing, Eradication and Confirmation

H. pylori causes chronic gastritis and contributes to peptic ulcer disease and gastric cancer risk. Testing should use an appropriate non-invasive or invasive method.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

Hereditary Spherocytosis

Assess haemolysis, splenomegaly, gallstones and family history, confirm membrane disease and individualise folate, transfusion and splenectomy decisions.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Intervention2 min read

High-Flow Nasal Oxygen: Patient Selection and Monitoring

High-flow nasal oxygen delivers warmed, humidified gas at high flow and may improve oxygenation, secretion clearance, comfort and work of breathing in selected patients with acute hypoxaemic respiratory…

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

High-Output Stoma: Fluid, Electrolyte and Nutrition Management

A high-output stoma can cause dehydration, sodium depletion, hypomagnesaemia and kidney injury.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Laboratory Test2 min read

High-Sensitivity Cardiac Troponin: Interpretation and Serial Change

A troponin above the assay-specific 99th percentile indicates myocardial injury, not automatically myocardial infarction. Acute injury requires a rise or fall and infarction additionally requires evidence of ischaemia.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later