Clinical Reference Centre

Clinical Reference2 min read

Skin and Soft-Tissue Infection

Differentiate cellulitis, abscess, bite infection and necrotising disease; drainage is essential for many purulent infections.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Measurement2 min read

Sleep Study Interpretation: AHI, Oxygenation and Clinical Context

Sleep studies quantify respiratory events, oxygenation, sleep time and sometimes carbon dioxide. The apnoea-hypopnoea index must be interpreted alongside symptoms and comorbidity.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

Small-Cell Lung Cancer

Classify limited or extensive disease, begin timely systemic treatment and integrate thoracic and cranial radiotherapy as appropriate.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Measurement2 min read

Spirometry: Quality, Obstruction and Restriction

Spirometry measures expiratory volumes and flows. Interpretation requires acceptable, repeatable manoeuvres and comparison with appropriate reference equations.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis: Diagnosis and Treatment

SBP is infection of ascitic fluid without a surgically treatable source and may present subtly.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Spontaneous Pneumothorax: Assessment and Management

Pneumothorax management depends on symptoms, physiological compromise, underlying lung disease, size and patient preference.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction: Reperfusion and Early Management

STEMI is a time-critical coronary occlusion syndrome requiring immediate assessment for reperfusion. Primary PCI is preferred when it can be delivered within the recommended timeframe; fibrinolysis remains relevant…

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Stable Angina: Clinical Assessment and Antianginal Strategy

Stable angina is predictable chest discomfort or equivalent symptoms caused by myocardial ischaemia. Diagnosis depends on history, risk profile and appropriate cardiac testing.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

Staphylococcus aureus Bacteraemia

Repeat cultures, search for endocarditis and metastatic infection, remove infected devices and ensure adequate targeted treatment duration.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Subclinical Thyroid Disease: When to Treat and Monitor

Subclinical thyroid disease has abnormal TSH with thyroid hormones within the reference interval.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

Superior Vena Cava Obstruction

Assess airway, cerebral and haemodynamic compromise and obtain tissue diagnosis when safe before disease-specific treatment.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Supraventricular Tachycardia: Acute Assessment and Management

Regular narrow-complex tachycardia is often AV nodal re-entry or AV re-entry tachycardia, but atrial tachycardia and flutter must be considered. Haemodynamic instability requires immediate synchronised cardioversion.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

Systemic Anticancer Therapy Safety

Verify indication, regimen, dosing variables, organ function, interactions and supportive medicines and provide clear toxicity advice.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

Systemic Lupus Erythematosus

Assess organ involvement and disease activity, minimise glucocorticoid exposure and use hydroxychloroquine and immunosuppression appropriately.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

Systemic Sclerosis

Screen for interstitial lung disease, pulmonary hypertension, renal crisis, digital ischaemia and gastrointestinal complications.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

Tall Stature Assessment

Tall Stature Assessment requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current paediatrics guidance. Interpret symptoms, examination…

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

Term Prelabour Rupture of Membranes

Term Prelabour Rupture of Membranes requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current obstetrics & gynaecology…

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

Thalassaemia: Diagnosis and Long-Term Care

Define genotype and transfusion dependence, monitor iron overload and organ complications, and coordinate chelation and specialist follow-up.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

Thrombocytopenia: Diagnostic Approach

Confirm the count and blood film, exclude clumping, review medicines, infection, liver disease, pregnancy, consumption and marrow disorders.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

Thrombocytosis: Reactive and Clonal Causes

Distinguish infection, inflammation, iron deficiency and tissue injury from myeloproliferative neoplasms using trend, film and molecular testing.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

Thrombotic Thrombocytopenic Purpura

Suspect TTP with thrombocytopenia and microangiopathic haemolysis, send ADAMTS13 testing and begin emergency plasma exchange-based treatment without delay.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Laboratory Test2 min read

Thyroid Function Tests: Structured Interpretation

Thyroid function interpretation uses TSH with free T4 and sometimes free T3 according to the suspected disorder.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Thyroid Storm: Recognition and Emergency Management

Thyroid storm is life-threatening decompensated thyrotoxicosis with fever, central nervous system dysfunction, gastrointestinal or hepatic disturbance and cardiovascular instability.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Intervention2 min read

TIPS: Indications, Selection and Follow-Up

Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt reduces portal pressure and is used for selected variceal bleeding and refractory ascites.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Toxic Alcohol Poisoning: Methanol and Ethylene Glycol

Methanol and ethylene glycol can cause severe metabolic acidosis, neurological injury, visual toxicity or renal failure. Early symptoms may be non-specific.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Toxic Megacolon: Recognition and Emergency Management

Toxic megacolon is acute colonic dilatation with systemic toxicity, usually complicating severe colitis.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

Transfusion Reactions

Stop the transfusion, assess severity and investigate haemolytic, allergic, febrile, septic, TRALI and circulatory-overload reactions.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

Travel-Related Fever

Use destination, incubation, exposures and prophylaxis to prioritise malaria, arboviruses, enteric fever and other imported infections.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

Tuberculosis: Recognition and Diagnosis

Assess pulmonary and extrapulmonary disease, obtain appropriate microbiology and institute airborne precautions when infectious TB is possible.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

Tumour Lysis Syndrome

Identify disease and treatment risk, provide prophylaxis, monitor electrolytes and renal function, and treat established syndrome urgently.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

Tumour Lysis Syndrome in Oncology

Risk-stratify before treatment, use hydration and urate-lowering prophylaxis and monitor potassium, phosphate, calcium, urate and renal function.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Type 1 Diabetes in Adults: Diagnosis and Initial Management

Type 1 diabetes should be suspected in adults with symptomatic hyperglycaemia, ketosis, weight loss or rapid deterioration, but presentation can be more gradual.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

Type 1 Diabetes in Children

Type 1 Diabetes in Children requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current paediatrics guidance. Interpret…

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Management2 min read

Type 1 Diabetes: Insulin Therapy, Education and Monitoring

Adults with type 1 diabetes require lifelong insulin, structured education and access to glucose monitoring technology.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Type 2 Diabetes: Diagnosis and Initial Clinical Assessment

Type 2 diabetes is diagnosed using validated glucose or HbA1c criteria in the appropriate clinical context.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Management2 min read

Type 2 Diabetes: Pharmacological Management

Glucose-lowering treatment should reduce symptomatic hyperglycaemia and long-term cardiorenal risk while minimising hypoglycaemia and treatment burden.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Ulcerative Colitis: Diagnosis, Extent and Long-Term Management

Ulcerative colitis causes continuous mucosal inflammation beginning in the rectum. Diagnosis combines symptoms, stool testing, endoscopy and histology.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Condition2 min read

Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding: Resuscitation and Risk Stratification

Upper GI bleeding may present with haematemesis, melaena, anaemia or shock. Initial priorities are resuscitation, transfusion strategy, reversal of anticoagulation where appropriate and early endoscopy.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

Urinary Tract Infection in Adults

Differentiate lower UTI, pyelonephritis, prostatitis and asymptomatic bacteriuria and use urine culture selectively.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

Vaccination in Immunosuppressed Rheumatology Patients

Review vaccination before immunosuppression, avoid live vaccines during significant immunosuppression and time selected vaccines around therapy.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

Vaginal Birth After Caesarean

Vaginal Birth After Caesarean requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current obstetrics & gynaecology guidance.…

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Intervention2 min read

Vasopressor Therapy: Principles, Targets and Monitoring

Vasopressors increase vascular tone and support perfusion when hypotension persists despite correction of reversible causes and appropriate fluid assessment.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

Venous Thromboembolism in Pregnancy

Venous Thromboembolism in Pregnancy requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current obstetrics & gynaecology guidance.…

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

Venous Thromboembolism: Diagnosis and Initial Treatment

Use clinical probability, D-dimer and imaging pathways, then select anticoagulation according to site, severity, renal function and bleeding risk.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

Vertebral Osteomyelitis and Discitis

Suspect with persistent focal spinal pain, bacteraemia or neurological deficit and obtain MRI and microbiological diagnosis.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

Viral Encephalitis

Suspect encephalitis with altered behaviour, cognition, consciousness or focal signs and start empirical aciclovir while pursuing CSF and imaging diagnosis.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

Vitamin B12 Deficiency

Recognise haematological and neurological presentations, investigate pernicious anaemia and malabsorption, and treat promptly when neurological injury is possible.

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later

Clinical Reference2 min read

Vitamin D Deficiency in Children

Vitamin D Deficiency in Children requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current paediatrics guidance. Interpret…

Open clinical reference → 📖 Read Later