Clinical Reference Centre

Clinical Reference2 min read

Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer

Use stage, driver alterations, PD-L1, fitness and patient preference to select surgery, radiotherapy, targeted therapy or immunotherapy.

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Condition2 min read

Non-ST-Elevation Acute Coronary Syndrome: Risk Stratification and Management

NSTE-ACS requires integration of symptoms, ECG, serial high-sensitivity troponin and validated risk assessment. Management balances ischaemic risk, bleeding risk, coronary anatomy and comorbidity.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Normocytic Anaemia

Use reticulocyte response, kidney function, inflammation, haemolysis testing and blood film to identify production failure or loss.

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Clinical Management2 min read

NSAID Gastroprotection and Ulcer Risk

NSAIDs increase peptic ulcer and bleeding risk, particularly with age, prior ulcer, anticoagulation, corticosteroids and comorbidity.

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Condition2 min read

Obesity Hypoventilation Syndrome: Diagnosis and Ventilatory Support

Obesity hypoventilation syndrome combines obesity, sleep-disordered breathing and awake hypercapnia after exclusion of other causes.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Obstetric Anal Sphincter Injury

Obstetric Anal Sphincter Injury requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current obstetrics & gynaecology guidance.…

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Condition2 min read

Obstructive Shock: Pulmonary Embolism, Tamponade and Tension Pneumothorax

Obstructive shock occurs when a mechanical barrier limits cardiac filling or output. Time-critical causes include massive pulmonary embolism, cardiac tamponade and tension pneumothorax.

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Condition2 min read

Obstructive Sleep Apnoea: Assessment, Diagnosis and Treatment

Obstructive sleep apnoea causes recurrent upper-airway obstruction during sleep, sleep fragmentation and intermittent hypoxaemia.

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Condition2 min read

Oesophageal Dysphagia: Structured Investigation

Oesophageal dysphagia may result from cancer, stricture, eosinophilic oesophagitis or motility disease.

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Condition2 min read

Oesophagogastric Cancer: Recognition and Referral

Oesophageal and gastric cancers may present with dysphagia, weight loss, anaemia, vomiting or persistent dyspepsia.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Oligohydramnios

Oligohydramnios requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current obstetrics & gynaecology guidance. Interpret symptoms, examination…

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Oncological Emergencies: Initial Assessment

Recognise neutropenic sepsis, cord compression, hypercalcaemia, tumour lysis, superior vena cava obstruction and raised intracranial pressure.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Opportunistic Infection in HIV

Use CD4 count, symptoms and imaging to prioritise diagnosis and begin empiric treatment when delay would be dangerous.

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Laboratory Test3 min read

Osmolar Gap: Calculation, Toxic Alcohols and Clinical Limitations

A practical guide to the osmolar gap, toxic alcohol exposure, ketoacidosis, timing effects and limitations.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Osteoarthritis: Core Management

Use education, exercise, weight management and topical or oral analgesia based on risk, with surgery for severe persistent disability.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Osteoporosis in Inflammatory Disease

Assess fracture risk, glucocorticoid exposure, falls and secondary causes and use bone-protective treatment when indicated.

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Clinical Intervention2 min read

Oxygen Delivery Devices: Selection and Monitoring

Oxygen devices differ in achievable concentration, flow characteristics, entrainment and patient tolerance. Device choice should match the target saturation, minute ventilation, inspiratory demand and risk of carbon dioxide…

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Clinical Intervention2 min read

Oxygen Therapy in Acutely Ill Adults

Oxygen is a treatment for hypoxaemia rather than breathlessness alone. Prescribe a target saturation range, select an appropriate device, reassess promptly and identify patients at risk of hypercapnic…

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Paediatric Advanced Life Support Assessment

Paediatric Advanced Life Support Assessment requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current paediatrics guidance. Interpret…

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Paediatric Anaphylaxis

Paediatric Anaphylaxis requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current paediatrics guidance. Interpret symptoms, examination findings,…

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Paediatric Dehydration

Paediatric Dehydration requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current paediatrics guidance. Interpret symptoms, examination findings,…

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Paediatric Encephalitis

Paediatric Encephalitis requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current paediatrics guidance. Interpret symptoms, examination findings,…

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Paediatric Fever Without Source

Paediatric Fever Without Source requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current paediatrics guidance. Interpret symptoms,…

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Paediatric Head Injury

Paediatric Head Injury requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current paediatrics guidance. Interpret symptoms, examination…

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Paediatric Meningitis

Paediatric Meningitis requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current paediatrics guidance. Interpret symptoms, examination findings,…

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Paediatric Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome

Paediatric Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current paediatrics guidance. Interpret symptoms,…

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Paediatric Obesity

Paediatric Obesity requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current paediatrics guidance. Interpret symptoms, examination findings,…

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Paediatric Pneumonia

Paediatric Pneumonia requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current paediatrics guidance. Interpret symptoms, examination findings,…

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Paediatric Urinary Tract Infection

Paediatric Urinary Tract Infection requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current paediatrics guidance. Interpret symptoms,…

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Condition2 min read

Pancreatic Exocrine Insufficiency: Diagnosis and Enzyme Replacement

Pancreatic exocrine insufficiency causes maldigestion, weight loss and fat-soluble vitamin deficiency.

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Condition2 min read

Paracetamol Overdose: Assessment and Antidote Pathway

Paracetamol overdose can cause delayed hepatic failure despite an initially well appearance. Establish timing, formulation, dose, staggered ingestion, risk factors and co-ingestants.

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Condition2 min read

Peptic Ulcer Disease: Causes, Complications and Management

Peptic ulcer disease is most often associated with H. pylori or NSAID exposure. Complications include bleeding, perforation and gastric outlet obstruction.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Performance Status in Oncology

Assess functional status alongside frailty, comorbidity and patient goals; performance status should not be interpreted without reversible causes.

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Condition2 min read

Perianal Crohn’s Disease: Imaging and Multidisciplinary Management

Perianal Crohn's disease includes fistulae, abscesses, fissures and stenosis. MRI and examination under anaesthesia define anatomy.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Placenta Praevia

Placenta Praevia requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current obstetrics & gynaecology guidance. Interpret symptoms,…

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Laboratory Test3 min read

Platelet Count: Thrombocytopenia and Thrombocytosis

A clinical guide to platelet count abnormalities, pseudothrombocytopenia, bleeding risk and urgent causes.

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Condition2 min read

Pleural Effusion: Diagnostic Assessment and Thoracentesis Strategy

Pleural effusion evaluation integrates symptoms, ultrasound, fluid appearance, biochemistry, microbiology and cytology.

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Condition2 min read

Pleural Infection: Recognition, Drainage and Escalation

Pleural infection ranges from uncomplicated parapneumonic effusion to empyema. Fluid pH, microbiology, imaging and clinical progress guide drainage decisions.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Polymyalgia Rheumatica

Diagnose compatible bilateral shoulder or hip-girdle symptoms with inflammation after excluding mimics and monitor glucocorticoid response and toxicity.

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Condition2 min read

Portal Hypertension: Non-Invasive Assessment and Management

Portal hypertension causes varices, ascites, splenomegaly and decompensation.

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Clinical Management2 min read

Postpartum Follow-Up After Gestational Diabetes

Previous gestational diabetes confers substantial future type 2 diabetes risk.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Postpartum Haemorrhage

Postpartum Haemorrhage requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current obstetrics & gynaecology guidance. Interpret symptoms,…

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Postpartum Hypertension

Postpartum Hypertension requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current obstetrics & gynaecology guidance. Interpret symptoms,…

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Pre-Eclampsia

Pre-Eclampsia requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current obstetrics & gynaecology guidance. Interpret symptoms, examination…

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Premature Ovarian Insufficiency

Premature Ovarian Insufficiency requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current obstetrics & gynaecology guidance. Interpret…

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Preterm Labour

Preterm Labour requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current obstetrics & gynaecology guidance. Interpret symptoms,…

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Preterm Prelabour Rupture of Membranes

Preterm Prelabour Rupture of Membranes requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current obstetrics & gynaecology…

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Condition2 min read

Primary Aldosteronism: Screening, Confirmation and Subtyping

Primary aldosteronism is autonomous aldosterone production causing hypertension with suppressed renin and variable hypokalaemia.

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