Clinical Reference Centre

Condition2 min read

Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Staging and Treatment Selection

HCC treatment depends on tumour burden, liver function, performance status and transplant suitability.

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Hepatorenal Syndrome-AKI: Diagnosis and Treatment

HRS-AKI is functional kidney failure in advanced cirrhosis after exclusion of shock, nephrotoxins and structural kidney disease.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Hereditary Spherocytosis

Assess haemolysis, splenomegaly, gallstones and family history, confirm membrane disease and individualise folate, transfusion and splenectomy decisions.

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Clinical Intervention2 min read

High-Flow Nasal Oxygen: Patient Selection and Monitoring

High-flow nasal oxygen delivers warmed, humidified gas at high flow and may improve oxygenation, secretion clearance, comfort and work of breathing in selected patients with acute hypoxaemic respiratory…

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High-Output Stoma: Fluid, Electrolyte and Nutrition Management

A high-output stoma can cause dehydration, sodium depletion, hypomagnesaemia and kidney injury.

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Laboratory Test2 min read

High-Sensitivity Cardiac Troponin: Interpretation and Serial Change

A troponin above the assay-specific 99th percentile indicates myocardial injury, not automatically myocardial infarction. Acute injury requires a rise or fall and infarction additionally requires evidence of ischaemia.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

HIV Antiretroviral Therapy

Start effective combination treatment promptly, review interactions and adherence and monitor viral suppression and toxicity.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

HIV: Initial Diagnosis and Baseline Assessment

Confirm diagnosis promptly, assess CD4 count, viral load, resistance, coinfection and urgent opportunistic disease, and link to specialist care.

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Clinical Management2 min read

Home Non-Invasive Ventilation: Selection and Monitoring

Home NIV supports selected patients with chronic ventilatory failure from neuromuscular disease, chest-wall disorders, obesity hypoventilation or COPD.

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Condition2 min read

Hospital-Acquired Pneumonia: Diagnosis and Antimicrobial Strategy

Hospital-acquired pneumonia develops after hospital admission and carries increased risk of resistant organisms and severe illness.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Hyperemesis Gravidarum

Hyperemesis Gravidarum requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current obstetrics & gynaecology guidance. Interpret symptoms,…

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Hyperkalaemia in Acute Care: Recognition and Treatment

Hyperkalaemia can cause fatal arrhythmia. Immediate assessment should include ECG monitoring, confirmation when appropriate, cardiac protection when indicated, intracellular shift and removal of potassium.

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Condition3 min read

Hyperkalaemia: Emergency Recognition and Management Principles

An updated guide to hyperkalaemia severity, ECG assessment, cardiac protection, intracellular shift, potassium removal and monitoring.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Hypermobility Spectrum Disorders

Assess symptomatic joint hypermobility, instability, pain and functional impact and use rehabilitation and injury prevention.

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Condition3 min read

Hypernatraemia: Assessment, Water Deficit and Safe Management

A clinical guide to hypernatraemia, water deficit, diabetes insipidus, sodium gain, correction rates and monitoring.

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Hyperosmolar Hyperglycaemic State: Recognition and Management

Hyperosmolar hyperglycaemic state causes profound dehydration, severe hyperglycaemia and hyperosmolality, often with limited ketonaemia.

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Hypertension in Adults: Diagnosis, Treatment and Monitoring

Hypertension diagnosis should be confirmed with ambulatory or home blood-pressure monitoring when appropriate. Management combines cardiovascular risk assessment, lifestyle intervention and stepwise medication.

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Hypertensive Emergency: Target-Organ Injury and Controlled Reduction

Hypertensive emergency is severe blood-pressure elevation with acute target-organ injury. The diagnosis depends on organ damage, not the blood-pressure number alone.

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Condition2 min read

Hyperthyroidism: Diagnosis, Cause and Treatment Options

Hyperthyroidism may result from Graves disease, toxic nodular disease or thyroiditis.

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Condition2 min read

Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy: Diagnosis and Sudden-Death Risk

Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is unexplained increased left ventricular wall thickness with diverse genetic and clinical expression. Assessment includes symptoms, obstruction, fibrosis, arrhythmia and family history.

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Condition2 min read

Hypoglycaemia in Diabetes: Recognition, Treatment and Prevention

Hypoglycaemia can impair cognition, cause seizures or coma and limit safe glucose-lowering treatment.

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Condition3 min read

Hypokalaemia: Assessment, Replacement and Clinical Risk

A clinical reference to potassium loss, redistribution, magnesium deficiency, ECG risk and safe replacement.

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Condition2 min read

Hyponatraemia in Acute Care: Symptoms, Tonicity and Safe Correction

Acute-care assessment of hyponatraemia begins with neurological severity, tonicity, glucose and likely duration. Severe symptoms require protocol-led hypertonic therapy and close monitoring.

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Hyponatraemia: Diagnostic Assessment and Safe Correction

An evidence-informed guide to hypotonic hyponatraemia, symptom severity, SIADH, volume assessment and prevention of overcorrection.

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Hypovolaemic Shock: Recognition and Resuscitation

Hypovolaemic shock results from loss of blood or other intravascular volume. Control haemorrhage, restore circulation, prevent hypothermia and identify ongoing loss.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Idiopathic Inflammatory Myopathy

Evaluate proximal weakness, enzymes, autoantibodies, MRI and biopsy and screen for lung disease and malignancy.

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Condition2 min read

Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis: Diagnosis, Antifibrotic Therapy and Monitoring

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis is a progressive fibrosing interstitial pneumonia diagnosed through multidisciplinary integration of clinical and radiological findings.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor Toxicity

Recognise immune-mediated toxicity in any organ, grade severity, exclude infection and begin guideline-based immunosuppression when required.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Immune Thrombocytopenia

Diagnose ITP after excluding secondary causes and treat according to bleeding, platelet count, comorbidity, procedures and patient preference.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Infection Prevention and Control in Healthcare

Use hand hygiene, source isolation, device bundles, environmental cleaning and surveillance to prevent healthcare-associated infection.

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Clinical Management2 min read

Infection Prevention and Vaccination in IBD

Immunomodulators and advanced therapies can increase infection risk. Baseline screening and vaccination should precede treatment where possible.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Infective Endocarditis: Antimicrobial Management

Obtain multiple blood-culture sets, define valve and embolic complications and use endocarditis-team guided antimicrobial and surgical care.

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Condition2 min read

Infective Endocarditis: Recognition, Blood Cultures and Imaging

Infective endocarditis should be considered with persistent bacteraemia, embolic phenomena, new regurgitation, prosthetic material or compatible systemic illness.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Inflammatory Bowel Disease in Children

Inflammatory Bowel Disease in Children requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current paediatrics guidance. Interpret…

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Condition2 min read

Inflammatory Bowel Disease in Pregnancy

Active IBD at conception or during pregnancy increases adverse outcome risk. Maintaining remission is usually safer than stopping effective therapy.

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Clinical Management2 min read

Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Treat-to-Target Monitoring

IBD monitoring combines symptoms, biomarkers, endoscopy, imaging and treatment safety rather than symptoms alone.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Influenza: Antiviral Treatment and Infection Control

Prioritise treatment for severe, hospitalised or high-risk disease and apply vaccination and isolation measures.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Inherited Thrombophilia Testing

Reserve testing for situations in which the result will alter management or family counselling; avoid testing during acute thrombosis or interfering treatment.

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Clinical Management2 min read

Insulin Pump Therapy: Selection, Safety and Monitoring

Continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion can improve flexibility and glycaemic outcomes in selected people with type 1 diabetes.

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Condition2 min read

Interstitial Lung Disease: Initial Assessment and Multidisciplinary Diagnosis

Interstitial lung disease encompasses diverse inflammatory and fibrotic disorders. Diagnosis combines exposure history, autoimmune assessment, high-resolution CT, pulmonary physiology and multidisciplinary review.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Intra-Abdominal Infection

Combine resuscitation and source control with antibiotics matched to community or healthcare-associated risk.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Intrahepatic Cholestasis of Pregnancy

Intrahepatic Cholestasis of Pregnancy requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current obstetrics & gynaecology guidance.…

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Clinical Intervention2 min read

Intravenous Fluid Resuscitation in Acutely Ill Adults

Fluid resuscitation aims to restore effective circulation when hypovolaemia or distributive shock is present. Give small, reassessed boluses rather than unmonitored large volumes.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Iron Deficiency: Diagnosis and Replacement

Confirm deficiency with iron studies interpreted alongside inflammation, identify the cause and select oral or intravenous replacement with response monitoring.

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Condition2 min read

Iron-Deficiency Anaemia: Gastrointestinal Investigation

Iron-deficiency anaemia may reflect gastrointestinal blood loss, malabsorption or dietary deficiency. In adults it can be the first sign of GI cancer.

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Condition2 min read

Irritable Bowel Syndrome: Positive Diagnosis and Management

IBS is a disorder of gut-brain interaction characterised by abdominal pain related to defaecation and altered bowel habit.

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis

Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current paediatrics guidance. Interpret symptoms, examination…

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Clinical Reference2 min read

Kawasaki Disease

Kawasaki Disease requires a structured clinical assessment that identifies immediate risk, confirms the working diagnosis where possible and links treatment to current paediatrics guidance. Interpret symptoms, examination findings,…

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